Carnivora Id code: amd126Hyaenidae Hyaena brunnea (Thunberg, 1820) (Eng) Brown hyaena (Fre) Hyène brune Taxonomic notes Although recently placed in the distinct genus Parahyaena (Wilson & Reeder, 1993), the previous classification is here retained in accordance with Mills (1982b). No subspecies are recognised (Mills, 1982b; Skinner & Smithers, 1990). IUCN threat category Lower Risk, least concern (LR: lc). Available information Brown hyaena has been successfully studied in most of its range of distribution. Mills extensively studied the species' ecology and the coexistence with the spotted hyaena in the southern Kalahari (South Africa: Mills, 1982a, 1982b, 1983, 1984, 1989, 1990; Mills & Mills, 1978; Mills et al., 1980). In South Africa, the species' ecology was investigated in the agricultural area of the Transvaal (Skinner, 1976; Skinner & Ilani, 1979; Skinner & Van Aarde, 1987), while Maddock (1993) focused on its feeding habits in Central Karoo. Spacing patterns and resource exploitation in the Namib desert are analysed in Skinner et al. (1995). The species' ecology has been also studied in the central Kalahari (Botswana) by Owens & Owens (1978), who focused on feeding habits and aspects of its behaviour. Data on the species' occurrence are available for most of South Africa (De Graaff & Rautenbach, 1983; Gelderblom et al., 1995; Lynch, 1983; Lynch, 1989; Pringle, 1977, Rautenbach & Nel, 1978; Rowe-Rowe, 1992; Stuart et al., 1985), Angola (Crawford-Cabral & Paias Simoes, 1990; Feiler, 1990), Botswana (Anonymous, 1994), and northern Namibia (Viljoen, 1982). Literature available on this species was reviewed by Mills (1982). A detailed description of the species' ecology and distribution is found in Mills & Hes (1997) and Skinner & Smithers (1990). General information on the species’ ecology is also found in Kingdon (1997) and Stuart & Stuart (1997). Known extent of occurrence 
Except for a marginal extension in south-western Angola, the brown hyaena is restricted to the Southern African subregion, ranging in Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, and Zimbabwe. Its occurrence in South Africa is limited to Orange Free State, Transvaal and Cape Province, while in Natal it has been reintroduced (Skinner & Smithers, 1990). Its distribution map was taken from Skinner & Smithers (1990), then updated on the basis of Mills (1982b) and revised by Dr. M. G. L. Mills (25 March ‘97). (Fig. 3.4.2.a). Categorical-discrete (CD) distribution model This species occurs in arid areas such as semi-desert and desert, but also in woodlands (Skinner & Smithers, 1990; Skinner, 1976; Lynch, 1983). Based on these environmental preferences, the following scores were assigned (Fig. 3.4.2.b) (Tab. 3.4.2.a):
Tab 3.4.2.a: Cumulative size (km2) of areas pertaining to each environmental suitability class within the Extent of Occurrence.
Tab 3.4.2.b: Area of Occupancy fragmentation indexes. Probabilistic-continuous (PC) distribution model The output of the probabilistic-continuous (PC) distribution model is shown in Fig. 3.4.2.c. Validation
Tab 3.4.2.c: Categorical-discrete (CD) distribution model validation parameters. Comments and conservation issues Most of the known EO is classified as suitable (76%) and largely continuous (LPI = 76.78%). Both results are supported by a good Index of Accordance (69.41%). Although restricted to a relatively small range, the species does not appear to be threatened by loss of habitat. The existing protected areas include >13% of the AO.
Tab 3.4.2.d: Percent of environmental suitability classes within EO (as obtained from the categorical-discrete distribution model) inside and outside the protected areas. References Anonymous (1994). Aerial census of animals in Botswana: wet season 1994. Wildlife conservation in northern Botswana. Technical report by ULG Consultants to the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, Govt. of Botswana Crawford-Cabral J., Paias Simoes A. (1990). Distributional data and notes on Angolan carnivores (Mammalia: Carnivora). II - Larger species. Garcia de Orta, Série de Zoologica: Lisboa 15(2), 9-20. De Graaff G., Rautenbach I.L. (1983). A survey of mammals in the newly proclaimed Karoo National Park, South Africa. Ann Mus Roy Afr Cent: 237, 89-99.Lynch C.D. (1989). The mammals of the north-east Cape Province. Mem. van die Nasionale Mus., Bloemfontein: 25, 1-116. Feiler A. (1990). Distribution of mammals in Angola and notes on biogeography. Vertebrates in the tropics (Peters, G & R Hutter, eds). Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn.: 221-236. Gelderblom C.M., Bronner G.N., Lombard A.T., Taylor P.J. (1995). Patterns of distribution and current protection status of the Carnivora, Chiroptera and Insectivora in South Africa. In: Anonymous (1995). Vertebrate Conservation in South Africa. Papers presented at the ZSSA symposium, July 1994. S. Afr. J. Zool.: 30(3), 103-114. Kingdon J. (1997). The Kingdon field guide to African Mammals. Academic Press, London and New York: Natural World. Lynch C.D. (1983). The mammals of the Orange Free State. Mem. van die Nasionale Mus., Bloemfontein: 18, 1-218. Lynch C.D. (1989). The mammals of the north-east Cape Province. Mem. van die Nasionale Mus., Bloemfontein: 25, 1-116. Maddock A.H. (1993). Analysis of brown hyaena (Hyaena brunnea) scats from the central karoo, South Africa. J. Zool., Lond.: 231, 679-683. Mills G., Hes L. (1997). The complete book of Southern African mammals. Struik Publishers. Mills M.G.L. (1982a). Factors affecting group size and territory size of the brown hyena, Hyaena brunnea, in the southern Kalahari. J. Zool. Soc., Lond.: 198, 39-51. Mills M.G.L. (1982b). Hyaena brunnea. Mammalian Species: 194, 1-5. Mills M.G.L. (1982c). The mating system of the brown hyena, Hyaena brunnea, in the southern Kalahari. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.: 10, 131-136. Mills M.G.L. (1983). Behavioral mechanisms in territory and group maintenance of the brown hyena, Hyaena brunnea, in the southern Kalahari. Anim. Behav.: 31, 503-510. Mills M.G.L. (1984). The comparative behavioral ecology of the brown hyena, Hyaena brunnea, and the spotted hyena, Crocuta crocuta, in the southern Kalahari. Koedoe: Suppl., 237-247. Mills M.G.L. (1989). The comparative behavioral ecology of hyenas: the importance of diet and food dispersion. In: Gittleman J.L. (Eds). Carnivore Behavior, Ecology and Evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y: pp 125-163. Mills M.G.L. (1990). Kalahari Hyenas: Comparative Behavioral Ecology of Two Species. Unwin Hyman, London. Mills M.G.L., Gorman M.L., Mills M.E.J. (1980). The scent-marking behavior of the brown hyena, Hyaena brunnea. S. Afr. J. Zool.: 15, 240-248. Mills M.G.L., Mills M.E.J. (1978). The diet of the brown hyena, Hyaena brunnea. Koedoe: 21, 125-149. Owens M.J., Owens D.D. (1978). Feeding ecology and its influence on social organization in brown hyenas (Hyaena brunnea Thunberg) of the Central Kalahari Desert. E. Afr. Wildl. J.: 16, 113-136. Pringle J.A. (1977). The distribution of mammals in Natal: 2. Carnivora. Ann. Natal Mus.: 23(1), 93-116. Rautenbach I.L., Nel J.A.J. (1978). Coexistence in Transvaal Carnivora. Bull Car Mus Nat His: 6, 138-145. Rowe-Rowe D.T. (1992). The carnivores of Natal. Natal Parks, Game & Fish Preservation Board, Pietermaritzburg, Natal, R.S.A. Skinner J.D. (1976). Ecology of the brown hyaena Hyaena brunnea in the Transvaal with a distribution map for southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci.: 72, 262-269. Skinner J.D., Ilani G. (1979). The striped hyaena Hyaena hyaena of the Judean and Negev desert and a comparison with the brown hyaena H. brunnea. Israel J. Zool.: 28, 229-232. Skinner J.D., Smithers R.H.N. (1990). The mammals of the Southern African subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria. Skinner J.D., van Aarde R.J. (1987). Range use by brown hyaena Hyaena brunnea relocated in an agricultural area of the Transvaal. J. Zool., Lond.: 212, 350-352. Skinner J.D., van Aarde R.J., Goss R.A. (1995). Space and resource use by brown hyaenas Hyaena brunnea in the Namib Desert. J. Zool., Lond.: 237, 123-131. Stuart C., Stuart T. (1997). Field guide to the larger mammals of Africa. Struik Publishers. Stuart C.T., Macdonald I.A.W., Mills M.G.L. (1985). History, current status and conservation of large mammalian predators in Cape Province, Republic of South Africa. Biological Conservation: 31, 7-19. Viljoen P.J. (1982). The distribution and population status of the larger mammals in Kaokoland, South West Africa/Namibia. Cimbebasia: A 7, 7-33. Wilson D.E., Reeder D.M. (Eds) (1993). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference. Second edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.
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